Sunday, November 25, 2012

Crisis in the Late Medieval Period


I. Crisis: Disease, War, and Schism

A. The Black Death, 1347–1352

1. “A Pestilential Disease” — The Black Death transformed the West, decimating populations and wreaking havoc on social and economic structures. It began in 1346 in the region between the Black and Caspian seas, probably caused by bacteria carried across the seas by rats. It arrived in port towns first in Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Marseille, and Constantinople, and spread rapidly across much of Spain, Italy, the Balkans, and France. It then spread to the north, to Germany, England, Scandinavia, and Russia, as well as the Islamic world. The Black Death recurred every ten to twelve years throughout the fourteenth century, and intermittently until the eighteenth century. With local variations in incidence, it killed somewhere between one-third and one-half (perhaps as much as 60 percent) of the population of Europe. The earlier Great Famine had weakened the population and made the disease even more deadly.

2. Consequences of the Black Death — Some areas adopted quarantines as the plague spread. Religious responses included the widespread belief that sin had caused the plague. Many became flagellants, while others blamed the Jews, especially in Germany, causing many to flee to Poland. A bleak preoccupation with death was evident in the Dance of Death processions, performance, artwork, and literature. The Black Death also brought opportunities for survivors. Farming became more profitable, as marginal lands were not needed and agricultural diversity expanded. Standard of living and wages improved for the poor, and diet also improved. Birthrates improved and marriages increased after the plague passed. New universities were established by survivors made rich by the wealth of the dead.

B. The Hundred Years’ War, 1337–1453

1. Origins and Early Course of the War — In 1337, Philip VI of France claimed Guyenne, the area around Bordeaux, which was a part of the continent still held by the English monarchs. In return, Edward III of England claimed the French throne, leading to more than a century of conflict. The war had two phases—in the first, which climaxed in 1415 at the battle of Agincourt, England gained territory and established the Duchy of Burgundy.



2. Joan of Arc — In the second phase, the French recovered and reconquered nearly all of England’s continental territory. French success was partially due to Joan of Arc, a sixteen-year-old peasant girl who claimed to have visions in which God told her to fight against the English. Joan of Arc fought courageously in the successful battle of Orléans and convinced the French dauphin to travel to the cathedral in Reims to be anointed and crowned King Charles VII. In 1431, in a failed attempt to take Paris, Joan was captured, turned over to the English, and burned at the stake after being tried as a witch.
3. The Hundred Years’ War as a World War — Other Europeans became involved in the war, as both sides made much use of mercenaries. Burgundy played both sides against each other before siding with France in 1435 and eventually being absorbed into France

4. From Chivalry to Modern Warfare — Although many considered the war a chivalric adventure, most of the soldiers who fought in it were mercenaries or “free companies” who lived off the land at times and extorted protection money from peasants. Archers and foot soldiers were more important in the conflict than knights, and cannon and gunpowder weapons became more important as the war continued. Armies became increasingly professionalized and centralized.

5. The War’s Progeny: Widespread resentment among the common people of France and England, who paid ever-higher taxes to support the Hundred Years’ War, fueled popular uprisings, which contributed to further political and social disorder. In 1338, the war led to pro-English rebellions in Flemish cities and towns. These were put down in 1348, but some revolts continued. A Parisian revolt in 1358 against high taxes and incompetent leadership was also put down and its leader assassinated. The same year a peasant revolt, branded the “Jacquerie” by disgusted elites, was brutally repressed. In England, the passage of a poll tax in 1381 triggered a peasant revolt known as Wat Tyler’s Rebellion. Rebels demanded, among other things, an end to serfdom and marched on London before the rebellion was put down and its leaders executed.

C. The Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople, 1453

1. The Conquests of Murad I and Mehmed III — The Ottomans were a central Asian tribe who began to expand under Osman I (r. 1280–1324), waging holy war against unbelievers. Under Murad I (r. 1360–1389), they reduced the Byzantine Empire to Constantinople and vassal-state status. The Ottomans also expanded in the Balkans and across Anatolia. At the 1389 battle of Kosovo, Murad defeated a Hungarian-Serbian army. Ottoman conquest resumed after a pause during the reign of Mehmed II (r. 1451–1481), who resolved to take Constantinople. In 1453, the city fell when cannons breached its walls and the Byzantine emperor was beheaded, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire.

2. Ottoman Rule — Mehmed sought to become a successor to the Roman emperors. He turned Justinian’s Hagia Sophia church into a mosque. He kept the name Constantinople, but the city was popularly referred to as Istanbul. Requisitioned Christian boys were converted, trained as soldiers, and served as Janissaries to defend and administer formerly Byzantine regions. Mehmed expanded the empire through Serbia by 1458 and conquered Athens and the Peloponnese by 1460, gaining Bosnia six years later. By 1500, the Ottoman state bridged Europe and the Middle East.


D. The Great Schism, 1378–1417

1. New Criticism of the Papacy — The removal of the popes to Avignon from Rome produced much criticism. Critics of the papacy emerged, such as the English Franciscan William of Ockham (c.1285–1349), who argued that the faithful were more important to the Church than the papacy or church councils.

2. The Great Schism — Pope Gregory XI (r. 1370–1378), responding to critics, returned to Rome in 1377. After his death, an Italian, Urban VI, was chosen as his successor. Urban sought to curb the power of the cardinals, and in response some of them elected a French pope, Clement VII, and installed him at Avignon. Clement and Urban excommunicated each other, causing the Great Schism (1378–1417). Clement was supported by the French king, while the king of England supported Urban, and other states also chose sides, formed alliances, and switched sides for gain.

3. The Conciliar Movement — Many argued a church council was needed to resolve the dispute. In 1409, with the successor popes in power refusing to attend, cardinals loyal to neither pope met in a council and elected a new pope, resulting in three popes. The Council of Constance (1414–1418) met to resolve the papal crisis and institute reforms. All three popes resigned or were deposed, and the council elected Martin V as pope, who was recognized by every significant ruler, ending the schism.

4. New Forms of Piety — With the plague continuing and the church in crisis, new forms of piety emerged. The pious sought to ensure their salvation through plenary indulgence (full forgiveness of sin) for those who made pilgrimages to designated holy places, and to reduce the amount of time in purgatory by purchasing indulgences or earning them by certain devout acts. Education was strengthened, more schools were established, and priests were instructed to teach the faithful the basics of religion. A range of popular devotions proliferated in homes. Public processions of the Eucharist and images of the suffering Christ were widespread.

5. New Heresies: The Lollards and the Hussites — New heretical movements emerged out of religious anxiety, dissent, and social unrest. In England John Wycliffe (1330–1384) inspired the Lollard movement, which emphasized Bible readings and preached against monasticism, corruption in the church, and the mass. The Lollards were active and included many women, but they were widely persecuted. In Bohemia, the Hussites were led by Jan Hus (1372?–1415), an admirer of Wycliffe. They insisted on the equal dignity of the laity and the right of the people to receive the wine as well as the bread at Eucharist. Hus was condemned as a heretic, lured to the Council of Constance, arrested, and executed. His outraged Czech supporters revolted against German rule and defeated several crusades sent against them, establishing several communities where radicals attempted to live according to the example of the first apostles. They negotiated with the Holy Roman emperor and were incorporated into the Bohemian system, winning the right to receive communion in both kinds and strengthening Czech identity

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