I. Crisis: Disease, War, and Schism
A. The Black Death, 1347–1352
1. “A Pestilential Disease” — The Black Death transformed
the West, decimating populations and wreaking havoc on social and economic
structures. It began in 1346 in the region between the Black and Caspian seas,
probably caused by bacteria carried across the seas by rats. It arrived in port
towns first in Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Marseille, and Constantinople, and
spread rapidly across much of Spain, Italy, the Balkans, and France. It then
spread to the north, to Germany, England, Scandinavia, and Russia, as well as
the Islamic world. The Black Death recurred every ten to twelve years
throughout the fourteenth century, and intermittently until the eighteenth
century. With local variations in incidence, it killed somewhere between
one-third and one-half (perhaps as much as 60 percent) of the population of
Europe. The earlier Great Famine had weakened the population and made the
disease even more deadly.
2. Consequences of the Black Death — Some areas adopted
quarantines as the plague spread. Religious responses included the widespread
belief that sin had caused the plague. Many became flagellants, while others
blamed the Jews, especially in Germany, causing many to flee to Poland. A bleak
preoccupation with death was evident in the Dance of Death processions,
performance, artwork, and literature. The Black Death also brought
opportunities for survivors. Farming became more profitable, as marginal lands
were not needed and agricultural diversity expanded. Standard of living and
wages improved for the poor, and diet also improved. Birthrates improved and
marriages increased after the plague passed. New universities were established
by survivors made rich by the wealth of the dead.
B. The Hundred Years’ War, 1337–1453
1. Origins and Early Course of the War — In 1337, Philip VI
of France claimed Guyenne, the area around Bordeaux, which was a part of the
continent still held by the English monarchs. In return, Edward III of England
claimed the French throne, leading to more than a century of conflict. The war
had two phases—in the first, which climaxed in 1415 at the battle of Agincourt,
England gained territory and established the Duchy of Burgundy.
2. Joan of Arc — In the second phase, the French recovered
and reconquered nearly all of England’s continental territory. French success
was partially due to Joan of Arc, a sixteen-year-old peasant girl who claimed
to have visions in which God told her to fight against the English. Joan of Arc
fought courageously in the successful battle of Orléans and convinced the
French dauphin to travel to the cathedral in Reims to be anointed and crowned
King Charles VII. In 1431, in a failed attempt to take Paris, Joan was
captured, turned over to the English, and burned at the stake after being tried
as a witch.
3. The Hundred Years’ War as a World War — Other Europeans
became involved in the war, as both sides made much use of mercenaries.
Burgundy played both sides against each other before siding with France in 1435
and eventually being absorbed into France
4. From Chivalry to Modern Warfare — Although many
considered the war a chivalric adventure, most of the soldiers who fought in it
were mercenaries or “free companies” who lived off the land at times and
extorted protection money from peasants. Archers and foot soldiers were more
important in the conflict than knights, and cannon and gunpowder weapons became
more important as the war continued. Armies became increasingly
professionalized and centralized.
5. The War’s Progeny: Widespread resentment among the common
people of France and England, who paid ever-higher taxes to support the Hundred
Years’ War, fueled popular uprisings, which contributed to further political
and social disorder. In 1338, the war led to pro-English rebellions in Flemish
cities and towns. These were put down in 1348, but some revolts continued. A
Parisian revolt in 1358 against high taxes and incompetent leadership was also
put down and its leader assassinated. The same year a peasant revolt, branded
the “Jacquerie” by disgusted elites, was brutally repressed. In England, the
passage of a poll tax in 1381 triggered a peasant revolt known as Wat Tyler’s
Rebellion. Rebels demanded, among other things, an end to serfdom and marched
on London before the rebellion was put down and its leaders executed.
C. The Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople, 1453
1. The Conquests of Murad I and Mehmed III — The Ottomans
were a central Asian tribe who began to expand under Osman I (r. 1280–1324),
waging holy war against unbelievers. Under Murad I (r. 1360–1389), they reduced
the Byzantine Empire to Constantinople and vassal-state status. The Ottomans
also expanded in the Balkans and across Anatolia. At the 1389 battle of Kosovo,
Murad defeated a Hungarian-Serbian army. Ottoman conquest resumed after a pause
during the reign of Mehmed II (r. 1451–1481), who resolved to take
Constantinople. In 1453, the city fell when cannons breached its walls and the
Byzantine emperor was beheaded, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire.
2. Ottoman Rule — Mehmed sought to become a successor to the
Roman emperors. He turned Justinian’s Hagia Sophia church into a mosque. He
kept the name Constantinople, but the city was popularly referred to as
Istanbul. Requisitioned Christian boys were converted, trained as soldiers, and
served as Janissaries to defend and administer formerly Byzantine regions.
Mehmed expanded the empire through Serbia by 1458 and conquered Athens and the
Peloponnese by 1460, gaining Bosnia six years later. By 1500, the Ottoman state
bridged Europe and the Middle East.
D. The Great Schism, 1378–1417
1. New Criticism of the Papacy — The removal of the popes to
Avignon from Rome produced much criticism. Critics of the papacy emerged, such
as the English Franciscan William of Ockham (c.1285–1349), who argued that the
faithful were more important to the Church than the papacy or church councils.
2. The Great Schism — Pope Gregory XI (r. 1370–1378),
responding to critics, returned to Rome in 1377. After his death, an Italian,
Urban VI, was chosen as his successor. Urban sought to curb the power of the
cardinals, and in response some of them elected a French pope, Clement VII, and
installed him at Avignon. Clement and Urban excommunicated each other, causing
the Great Schism (1378–1417). Clement was supported by the French king, while
the king of England supported Urban, and other states also chose sides, formed
alliances, and switched sides for gain.
3. The Conciliar Movement — Many argued a church council was
needed to resolve the dispute. In 1409, with the successor popes in power
refusing to attend, cardinals loyal to neither pope met in a council and
elected a new pope, resulting in three popes. The Council of Constance
(1414–1418) met to resolve the papal crisis and institute reforms. All three
popes resigned or were deposed, and the council elected Martin V as pope, who
was recognized by every significant ruler, ending the schism.
4. New Forms of Piety — With the plague continuing and the
church in crisis, new forms of piety emerged. The pious sought to ensure their
salvation through plenary indulgence (full forgiveness of sin) for those who
made pilgrimages to designated holy places, and to reduce the amount of time in
purgatory by purchasing indulgences or earning them by certain devout acts.
Education was strengthened, more schools were established, and priests were
instructed to teach the faithful the basics of religion. A range of popular
devotions proliferated in homes. Public processions of the Eucharist and images
of the suffering Christ were widespread.
5. New Heresies: The Lollards and the Hussites —
New heretical movements emerged out of religious anxiety, dissent, and social
unrest. In England John Wycliffe (1330–1384) inspired the Lollard movement,
which emphasized Bible readings and preached against monasticism, corruption in
the church, and the mass. The Lollards were active and included many women, but
they were widely persecuted. In Bohemia, the Hussites were led by Jan Hus
(1372?–1415), an admirer of Wycliffe. They insisted on the equal dignity of the
laity and the right of the people to receive the wine as well as the bread at
Eucharist. Hus was condemned as a heretic, lured to the Council of Constance,
arrested, and executed. His outraged Czech supporters revolted against German
rule and defeated several crusades sent against them, establishing several
communities where radicals attempted to live according to the example of the
first apostles. They negotiated with the Holy Roman emperor and were
incorporated into the Bohemian system, winning the right to receive communion
in both kinds and strengthening Czech identity
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