Weekly Assignment 14

What tied the crises of the period (disease, war, schism) to the Renaissance (the flowering of literature, art, architecture, and music)? Your response should fill at least two machine produced sides of 8.5 by 11 sized paper, with one-inch margins and conventional 12 point font, and is due at the beginning of class on Wednesday, December 4.

The Renaissance

I. The Renaissance: New Forms of Thought and Expression

A. Renaissance Humanism

1. Humanism and the Revival of Classical Latin — During the Renaissance period, elements of the classical past were revived by Europeans disillusioned with the present. Humanism sought to recover texts from the classical past and revive Latin and Greek, as well as classical values and sensibilities. Humanism began in the Italian city-states, where humanists wrote texts patterned on classical models, especially Cicero. Most humanists combined sincere Christian piety with their appreciation of the pagan past.

2. The Career of Francis Petrarch — The first humanist was Francis Petrarch (1304–1374), from Arezzo. Petrarch was educated at Avignon, where he fell in love with classical literature, gave up the study of law, and devoted himself to writing poetry in Italian and Latin. He saw humanism as a vocation.

3. Representative Humanists: Lauro Quirini, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, and Christine de Pisan — Lauro Quirini (1420–1475?), educated in law at the University of Padua, wrote essays and corresponded with other humanists. A merchant on Crete for the last half of his life, Quirini worried about the fate of Constantinople’s libraries under the Turks and tried to save books written in Greek. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494) was a more flamboyant humanist. Born near Ferrara to a noble family, he learned Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic, and attempted to reconcile Jewish mystical writings and the scriptures. The church found some of his ideas heretical. His Oration on the Dignity of Man summed up the humanist sense of man as a creative individual with unlimited potential. Christine de Pisan (c.1365–c.1430), a young Venetian widow, wrote poetry inspired by classical models and obtained aristocratic and royal patronage.

B. The Arts

1. From Agora to Piazza — Patronage strengthened the arts in this era. Unplanned medieval cities developed into planned urban spaces, imagined as places of order and harmony. Florentine architect Leon Alberti (1404–1472) worked to harmonize buildings and public spaces, and in Renaissance architecture the piazza, or plaza, became an important part of cities. Court architecture emphasized the same themes. Duke Frederico’s new palace at Urbino contained spacious courtyards and studies to be filled with books, and Roman temple forms were integrated into some Renaissance churches.

2. Sculpture and Painting — Renaissance artists used classical models for their work, but also mined the ancient world for subjects. Good examples are Ghiberti’s door sculpture of the Sacrifice of Isaac and Botticelli’s painting, The Birth of Venus. Perspective became more important, and developed in part out of military engineering, as demonstrated by the career of Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519). A northern Renaissance took place as well, outside of Italy. Portrait painting at the court of Burgundy emphasized the individuality and dignity of the subject, reflecting Renaissance values.

3. New Harmonies in Music — Music added glamour to Renaissance courts and musicians were heavily patronized. Some musicians served as chaplains, and some court musicians set humanist or classical poetry to music. Church-sponsored music, especially choral music, increased as papal courts proliferated. Josquin Desprez (1440–1521), the duke of Ferrara’s chaplain, was typical in his addition of classical elements to traditional musical forms to enhance music’s power.

II. Consolidating Power

A. New Political Formations in Eastern Europe

1. Bohemia — The shape of Europe changed a great deal from 1340 to 1492, with the Ottoman empire supplanting the Byzantine Empire. Bohemia gained new status as the seat of the Holy Roman Empire under the Luxembourg dynasty. Bohemia experienced religious and political crisis as the nobility, both Hussite and Catholic, clashed, and most of Europe considered Bohemia a heretic state.

2. The Hanseatic League — Cities were powerful in the Baltic region, especially the Hanseatic League, a loose federation of mostly north German cities established to protect trade and for mutual defense. The league linked the Baltic coast with Russia, Norway, Britain, and France, and defended itself successfully against Denmark and Norway.

3. Poland and Lithuania — Poland and Lithuania developed as two new monarchies. Poland, dominated by its nobility, expanded in the fourteenth century, partly through Jewish emigration. Lithuania was the only major holdout from Christianity in eastern Europe, until it expanded into southern Russia and its Grand Dukes flirted with both Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christianity. When its Grand Duke Jogailo married Queen Jadwiga of Poland, the states were united and he accepted Catholic baptism, promising to convert Lithuania.

B. Powerful States in Western Europe

1. Spain — Four states dominated western Europe in the fifteenth century as powerful monarchies. In the Iberian peninsula, decades of violence ended when Isabelle of the more powerful Castille married Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469 and restored law and order. The king and queen ruled jointly over their separate dominions, which retained traditions and laws. Progress toward a united Spain began, and Isabelle and Ferdinand consolidated their central power through taxation, bureaucracy, a compliant cortes, and ideology that glorified monarchy.

2. Burgundy — The Duchy of Burgundy was created when the duke of Burgundy, a member of the French royal family, married an heiress of Flanders in 1369. The rise of this state was due to military power and statecraft. Land was acquired in the Netherlands and the state grew in the area between France and Germany through purchase, inheritance, and conquest. Burgundy was a multi-ethnic patchwork of laws and traditions. Flourishing cities and rich farmland strengthened the state, which had no natural borders. Philip the Good (r.1418–1467) and Charles the Bold (r. 1467–1477) were strong rulers determined to enhance dynastic prestige and security through power and its careful, often theatrical projection. When Charles was killed at the battle of Nancy by the Swiss, Burgundian power came to an end, with the state divided up between France and the Holy Roman Empire.

3. France — France recovered quickly under Louis XI (r.1461–1483) after the Hundred Years’ War, expanding territorially to include Burgundy and inheriting control of Southern France after the Anjou dynasty died out. Louis promoted commerce and industry, imposed effective taxes, and built up the military. Through the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, the French kings asserted influence over the French bishops and set the stage for Gallicanism, or French control over church appointments and revenue.

4. England — In England, the Hundred Years’ War led to a civil war (the War of the Roses), which ended with Henry Tudor becoming Henry VII (r. 1485–1509). The English economy grew despite the conflicts, especially the cloth industry and wool exports. Farm and land rents increased, population grew, and general prosperity strengthened the monarchy.

C. Power in the Republics

1. The Swiss Confederation — Traditions of both self-rule and powerful leadership thrived in parts of the West. The Swiss Confederation was made up of cities from the Alpine regions of the Holy Roman Empire, who formed long-standing local alliances for defense and trade. By the end of the fourteenth century, they formed an effective political force. Tradesmen and merchants dominated the confederation, which remained fiercely independent.

2. The Republic of Venice — Venice, built on a lagoon, ruled an extensive empire, and its merchant ships were active everywhere. In the early fifteenth century, Venice took over many neighboring city-states. Its struggle with the powerful state of Milan for control of Northern Italy ended with the peace of Lodi in 1454. Venice was ruled by the Great Council, which was dominated by traditionally important families, with a leading magistrate (doge) elected by the council. The geography of the city fostered community and cooperation and may have helped prevent rebellion. Venice was influenced by humanism and by Byzantine art and architecture, and art was widely patronized by the church and lay confraternities.

3. Florence and the Medici Family — Florence was a republic dominated by the Medici family from 1434. Cosimo de’ Medici (1389–1464) used the Medici bank, which handled papal finances, to gain political power and to direct a broad consensus that he built among the ruling elite. His grandson, Lorenzo (1449–1492) bolstered the regime’s legitimacy and patronized the humanities and arts. Although driven from Florence in 1494, the family returned in 1512, and finally declared themselves the dukes of Florence in 1530, ending the republic.

D. The Tools of Power

1. New Taxes, New Knowledge: The Florentine Catasto — States increasingly exercised power in this era. An example of their growing intrusiveness is the Florentine catasto, a detailed inventory of households that was conducted in 1427. The catasto showed how wealth was divided and revealed a great deal about household size and child-rearing practices.

2. Driving out Muslims, Heretics, and Jews — More powerful monarchs and states were better positioned to persecute and oppose their enemies. Ferdinand and Isabella in Spain made efforts to impose religious uniformity and purity. They persecuted Jewish converts (conversos) by strengthening the Inquisition to investigate them on behalf of the crown, treating them as heretics and decreeing in 1492 that all Jews needed to convert or leave the country. Perhaps 150,000 fled and scattered. Ferdinand and Isabella also determined to rid Spain of its last Muslim stronghold, Granada. They conquered the city in 1492 and forced Muslims to convert or emigrate.

Crisis in the Late Medieval Period

I. Crisis: Disease, War, and Schism

A. The Black Death, 1347–1352

1. “A Pestilential Disease” — The Black Death transformed the West, decimating populations and wreaking havoc on social and economic structures. It began in 1346 in the region between the Black and Caspian seas, probably caused by bacteria carried across the seas by rats. It arrived in port towns first in Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Marseille, and Constantinople, and spread rapidly across much of Spain, Italy, the Balkans, and France. It then spread to the north, to Germany, England, Scandinavia, and Russia, as well as the Islamic world. The Black Death recurred every ten to twelve years throughout the fourteenth century, and intermittently until the eighteenth century. With local variations in incidence, it killed somewhere between one-third and one-half (perhaps as much as 60 percent) of the population of Europe. The earlier Great Famine had weakened the population and made the disease even more deadly.

2. Consequences of the Black Death — Some areas adopted quarantines as the plague spread. Religious responses included the widespread belief that sin had caused the plague. Many became flagellants, while others blamed the Jews, especially in Germany, causing many to flee to Poland. A bleak preoccupation with death was evident in the Dance of Death processions, performance, artwork, and literature. The Black Death also brought opportunities for survivors. Farming became more profitable, as marginal lands were not needed and agricultural diversity expanded. Standard of living and wages improved for the poor, and diet also improved. Birthrates improved and marriages increased after the plague passed. New universities were established by survivors made rich by the wealth of the dead.

B. The Hundred Years’ War, 1337–1453

1. Origins and Early Course of the War — In 1337, Philip VI of France claimed Guyenne, the area around Bordeaux, which was a part of the continent still held by the English monarchs. In return, Edward III of England claimed the French throne, leading to more than a century of conflict. The war had two phases—in the first, which climaxed in 1415 at the battle of Agincourt, England gained territory and established the Duchy of Burgundy.

2. Joan of Arc — In the second phase, the French recovered and reconquered nearly all of England’s continental territory. French success was partially due to Joan of Arc, a sixteen-year-old peasant girl who claimed to have visions in which God told her to fight against the English. Joan of Arc fought courageously in the successful battle of Orléans and convinced the French dauphin to travel to the cathedral in Reims to be anointed and crowned King Charles VII. In 1431, in a failed attempt to take Paris, Joan was captured, turned over to the English, and burned at the stake after being tried as a witch.

3. The Hundred Years’ War as a World War — Other Europeans became involved in the war, as both sides made much use of mercenaries. Burgundy played both sides against each other before siding with France in 1435 and eventually being absorbed into France

4. From Chivalry to Modern Warfare — Although many considered the war a chivalric adventure, most of the soldiers who fought in it were mercenaries or “free companies” who lived off the land at times and extorted protection money from peasants. Archers and foot soldiers were more important in the conflict than knights, and cannon and gunpowder weapons became more important as the war continued. Armies became increasingly professionalized and centralized.

5. The War’s Progeny: Widespread resentment among the common people of France and England, who paid ever-higher taxes to support the Hundred Years’ War, fueled popular uprisings, which contributed to further political and social disorder. In 1338, the war led to pro-English rebellions in Flemish cities and towns. These were put down in 1348, but some revolts continued. A Parisian revolt in 1358 against high taxes and incompetent leadership was also put down and its leader assassinated. The same year a peasant revolt, branded the “Jacquerie” by disgusted elites, was brutally repressed. In England, the passage of a poll tax in 1381 triggered a peasant revolt known as Wat Tyler’s Rebellion. Rebels demanded, among other things, an end to serfdom and marched on London before the rebellion was put down and its leaders executed.

C. The Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople, 1453

1. The Conquests of Murad I and Mehmed III — The Ottomans were a central Asian tribe who began to expand under Osman I (r. 1280–1324), waging holy war against unbelievers. Under Murad I (r. 1360–1389), they reduced the Byzantine Empire to Constantinople and vassal-state status. The Ottomans also expanded in the Balkans and across Anatolia. At the 1389 battle of Kosovo, Murad defeated a Hungarian-Serbian army. Ottoman conquest resumed after a pause during the reign of Mehmed II (r. 1451–1481), who resolved to take Constantinople. In 1453, the city fell when cannons breached its walls and the Byzantine emperor was beheaded, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire.

2. Ottoman Rule — Mehmed sought to become a successor to the Roman emperors. He turned Justinian’s Hagia Sophia church into a mosque. He kept the name Constantinople, but the city was popularly referred to as Istanbul. Requisitioned Christian boys were converted, trained as soldiers, and served as Janissaries to defend and administer formerly Byzantine regions. Mehmed expanded the empire through Serbia by 1458 and conquered Athens and the Peloponnese by 1460, gaining Bosnia six years later. By 1500, the Ottoman state bridged Europe and the Middle East.

D. The Great Schism, 1378–1417

1. New Criticism of the Papacy — The removal of the popes to Avignon from Rome produced much criticism. Critics of the papacy emerged, such as the English Franciscan William of Ockham (c.1285–1349), who argued that the faithful were more important to the Church than the papacy or church councils.

2. The Great Schism — Pope Gregory XI (r. 1370–1378), responding to critics, returned to Rome in 1377. After his death, an Italian, Urban VI, was chosen as his successor. Urban sought to curb the power of the cardinals, and in response some of them elected a French pope, Clement VII, and installed him at Avignon. Clement and Urban excommunicated each other, causing the Great Schism (1378–1417). Clement was supported by the French king, while the king of England supported Urban, and other states also chose sides, formed alliances, and switched sides for gain.

3. The Conciliar Movement — Many argued a church council was needed to resolve the dispute. In 1409, with the successor popes in power refusing to attend, cardinals loyal to neither pope met in a council and elected a new pope, resulting in three popes. The Council of Constance (1414–1418) met to resolve the papal crisis and institute reforms. All three popes resigned or were deposed, and the council elected Martin V as pope, who was recognized by every significant ruler, ending the schism.

4. New Forms of Piety — With the plague continuing and the church in crisis, new forms of piety emerged. The pious sought to ensure their salvation through plenary indulgence (full forgiveness of sin) for those who made pilgrimages to designated holy places, and to reduce the amount of time in purgatory by purchasing indulgences or earning them by certain devout acts. Education was strengthened, more schools were established, and priests were instructed to teach the faithful the basics of religion. A range of popular devotions proliferated in homes. Public processions of the Eucharist and images of the suffering Christ were widespread.

5. New Heresies: The Lollards and the Hussites — New heretical movements emerged out of religious anxiety, dissent, and social unrest. In England John Wycliffe (1330–1384) inspired the Lollard movement, which emphasized Bible readings and preached against monasticism, corruption in the church, and the mass. The Lollards were active and included many women, but they were widely persecuted. In Bohemia, the Hussites were led by Jan Hus (1372?–1415), an admirer of Wycliffe. They insisted on the equal dignity of the laity and the right of the people to receive the wine as well as the bread at Eucharist. Hus was condemned as a heretic, lured to the Council of Constance, arrested, and executed. His outraged Czech supporters revolted against German rule and defeated several crusades sent against them, establishing several communities where radicals attempted to live according to the example of the first apostles. They negotiated with the Holy Roman emperor and were incorporated into the Bohemian system, winning the right to receive communion in both kinds and strengthening Czech identity

Weekly Assignment 13

In what areas of life did 13th century Europeans try to find harmony and impose order, and how successful were these attempts. Your answer should fill at least 2 pages of 8.5 x 11 paper, machine-produced in a conventional 12 point font, and be turned by the beginning of class on Wednesday, November 28.

The Medieval Synthesis--And It's Cracks

I. The Church’s Mission

A. Innocent III and the Fourth Lateran Council

1. Innocent III and the Creation of the Council — During the thirteenth century, the church sought to strengthen its institutions of law and justice and to reorder the world in the image of heaven. Pope Innocent III (r.1198–1216) was powerful and respected. He was trained at the University of Bologna in theology, and he sought to magnify papal authority. In 1215 he called a church council, the Fourth Lateran Council, to regulate church teaching and Christian life.

2. The Laity and the Sacraments — The council made teachings on the sacraments (rituals conveying grace) more precise and detailed. They reinforced the importance of the Eucharist and the teaching that through transubstantiation, the host and the wine became Jesus' body and blood. The church claimed more authority over the sacrament of marriage, including claiming jurisdiction over marital disputes and strengthening the church’s role in seeking out impediments to marriages. The impact of these teachings, especially on the Eucharist and annual confession, was considerable.

3. Labeling the Jews — The council required Jews to make themselves known through outward signs, usually badges, clothing, or hats. The rules were enforced variously on the local level.

4. The Suppression of Heretics — The Fourth Lateran Council directed secular authorities to rid their lands of heretics; rulers were threatened with excommunication and loss of land and vassals if they failed to do so.

B. The Inquisition

1. Purposes of the Inquisition — The council challenged religious and secular authorities to put down heresy. The inquisition, originally set up in the wake of the crusade against Albigensianism in southern France, became permanent in 1233. Aided by secular authorities, the church-appointed inquisitors now called those suspected of heresy to testify, sometimes nearly entire villages.

2. The Inquisition in Action — Inquisitions usually began with a “preaching,” where individuals suspected of heresy were questioned, and clemency was promised to those who confessed. Those who quickly recanted, or were unaware that their beliefs were heresies, were given lenient penalties, but those who refused to repent were viewed as threats to the salvation of others and punished severely. During the thirteenth century, long-term imprisonment became a tool for repressing heresy, even if the heretic confessed, and for further interrogation concerning other supposed heretics and heretic plots.

C. Lay Piety

1. Preaching Friars and Receptive Townspeople — The number of preaching friars in towns increased, some of them university trained. Friars focused on applying Christian teaching to ordinary life. Some laypeople became tertiary friars, engaging in works of prayer and piety in imitation of the friars.

2. The Piety of Women — There was an explosion of female piety in this era. Many new nunneries were founded, female mystics proliferated, women joined mendicant orders, and domestic piety intensified for many, particularly in urban areas. Some women were so dedicated to the Eucharist that they ate little else. In this way women used their control over ordinary food to gain social and religious power.

D. Jews and Lepers as Outcasts

1. Jews Exploited and Expelled — The situation for Jews became abnormally tense in this era, as Christian monarchs gained power and piety intensified. Jews moved to cities, but they were often excluded from guild activities. Many were compelled to become moneylenders because other fields were closed to them. Kings in England and France imposed special taxes on Jews and confiscated their property. Lesser lords and monarchs alike capitalized on popular anti-Jewish sentiment to enrich themselves or rid themselves of debt. Sensational stories of Jews sacrificing Christian children or disrespecting the Eucharist circulated, and in some areas Jews were forcefully expelled or massacred. For example, all Jews were expelled from England in 1291.

2. Fearing the Contamination of Lepers — Lepers increasingly became objects of both charity and disgust. Because of their contagious and disfiguring disease, they were forced to live outside of society in special isolated houses set up for charitable reasons and the purpose of segregation. Lepers also had to worship in their own churches.

II. Reconciling This World and the Next

A. The Achievement of Scholasticism

1. Reconciling Faith and Reason — Scholasticism used logical inquiry in an attempt to summarize and reconcile all knowledge. Scholastics in the universities were confident that knowledge from the senses and reason was compatible with knowledge obtained through faith and revelation. Scholastic knowledge would produce effective preaching and conversion. The method made confident use of Aristotle’s rules of logic and often investigated the natural world.

2. St. Thomas Aquinas — Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) was the most famous scholastic, a Neopolitan Dominican who was a master at the University of Paris. He published the monumental Summa Theologica in 1273, which intended to cover all important topics. The topics were divided into questions, many of which spoke to practical concerns of the day, such as whether or not it was lawful to sell something for more than it was worth. Scholasticism was enormously optimistic and offered a sense of purpose and order and a guide to behavior.

3. Later Scholastics — Scholasticism did not always provide unity, and later scholastics such as John Duns Scotus (c.1266–1308), a Franciscan who taught at Oxford and Paris, concerned themselves with the limits of reason. Duns Scotus found the world and God to be less compatible: he believed illumination came not as a matter of course but only when God chose to intervene.

B. New Syntheses in Writing and Music

1. Vernacular Literature Comes of Age: Dante Alighieri — Dante Alighieri’s poetry harmonized the scholastic universe with the mysteries of faith and the poetry of love. His Divina Commedia  (Divine Comedy) described an imaginary journey  through hell and purgatory to paradise. The allegorical poem explores the soul’s search for meaning, enlightenment, and divine love. The popularity of the poem influenced the development of the Italian language, and other writers addressed similar themes.

2. Polyphony and the Motet — Musicians, too, developed new forms that bridged the secular and the sacred. Freer melodies led to harmony. Motet music began in France, probably Paris, and often used two or three lines of melody, sometimes “sung” by instruments. Motets were written for and by the clerical elites but made use of the music of ordinary people. New notation and rhythm helped composers indicate rhythm and notes more precisely.

C. Gothic Art

1. Stained Glass — Gothic architecture began around 1135 with the remodeling of the church of Saint-Denis and spread from France throughout Europe. Gothic church architecture allowed for large windows, and chemically treated colored glass with lead and painted images was used to depict complicated religious scenes.

2. Sculpture — Gothic cathedrals were also decorated with sculpture. Sculpted in the round, Gothic figures moved and interacted with one another, often to tell a religious story or express a spiritual truth. Themed sculptures were used to sum up a body of truths. Gothic sculpture spread from France throughout the thirteenth century, with regional variations.

3. Painting — In painting, Giotto (1266–1337) experimented with the illusion of depth, and his figures express a range of emotion. By blending religious meanings with human forms, Giotto found another way to bring together the natural and divine realms. Gothic style also appeared in paintings as a decorative motif, and manuscript illuminations featured stained-glass windows as background themes

III. The Politics of Control

A. The Weakening of the Empire

1. The Papacy and the German Emperors — The papacy and the German emperors continued to struggle for control of Italy, which was symbolically significant and offered a rich source of income. Barbarossa’s son married Constance, an heiress of Sicily, but died before he could use his position in southern Italy to expand his power. During his son Frederick II’s childhood, the German princes and the papacy attempted to control the imperial office. Pope Innocent III crowned Otto of Brunswick emperor in exchange for his promise not to invade Italy, a promise that was soon broken. When Otto invaded Sicily in 1211, the pope excommunicated him. In 1212, Innocent gave the crown to Frederick II (r. 1212–1250). Frederick was heir to Sicilian and German culture. Innocent’s papacy was expansionistic and determined to strengthen its claim to the Italian papal states and resist any German expansion into Italy.

2. The Rule of Frederick II — Frederick sought to control Italy with a three-pronged approach that involved strengthening his hold over Sicily, making concessions to the German princes, and expanding his control of Italy by entering through Lombardy. Four popes after Innocent resisted Frederick’s efforts and excommunicated him on several occasions, including most seriously at the Council of Lyon in 1245. They also preached a crusade against him, which lasted until his death in 1250.

3. The Consequences of Frederick’s Failure — The concessions Frederick made to the German princes allowed them to turn their regions into virtually independent states and left German regions divided until the nineteenth century. Frederick’s failure strengthened the position of the German princes and in 1273 brought the Swabian Hapsburg family to imperial power as the “Holy Roman Emperors,” a prestigious but meaningless honorific. Frederick’s failure in Italy meant that the Italian cities would continue to be divided. Sicily was ruled by a succession of other families; it was eventually claimed by both the kings of Aragon and the house of Anjou. While the popes resisted losing control of Italy, they came under attack for using religion as a political tool.

B. Louis IX and a New Ideal of Kingship

1. Louis and the Paternal Ideal of Kingship — Louis IX (r. 1226–1270) established a new ideal of kingship. He was revered as a military leader but also primarily as an administrator, judge, and “just father” of his people.

2. The Reign of Louis IX — Louis used salaried magistrates to expand the influence of royal courts. A zealous crusader, Louis resisted territorial conflicts at home. He respected the church and the pope in spiritual matters but also protected his own royal authority, particularly in matters of excommunication. He hated Jews, canceling debts owed to them and ordering them to leave France or live “by the labor of their hands” in 1253. Many of his contemporaries considered him to be a saint because of his concern for the poor and sick and his personal piety, and he was canonized in 1297. Louis increased the power and prestige of the French monarchy

C. The Birth of Representative Institutions

1. Spanish Cortes — Rulers sought to enlist broad support for their policies from the two most powerful “orders” of medieval society, the nobility and the clergy. Across Europe rulers summoned parliaments, and as townsmen became more important, they became more closely integrated into royal government. One of the earliest were the cortes of Castile-Leon, representative assemblies that included townsmen. Once convened at court, the townsmen joined bishops and noblemen in formally counseling the king and assenting to royal decisions. Alfonso IX (r. 1188–1230) summoned them in the first year of his reign and then called on them regularly to participate in major political and military decisions and to assent to taxes.

2. English Parliament — In the twelfth century, the English King Henry II had consulted with prelates and barons at Great Councils, using these Parliaments as tools to ratify and gain support for his policies. During the first sixteen years of the reign of young Henry III (r. 1216–1272), England was governed by a council of a few barons, university-trained administrators, and a papal legate. In 1258 the barons, unhappy over Henry III’s wars and debts, threatened rebellion and forced a Council of Fifteen on the king. When another civil war was won by Simon de Montfort, he attempted to consolidate his control over the king by convening a parliament and including, along with earls, barons, and churchmen, representatives from the towns—the “commons.”

D. The Weakening of the Papacy

1. Taxing the Clergy — Kings gradually gained power relative to the papacy. Popes attempted to exempt clergy from taxation and keep them subject only to ecclesiastical courts, but by the end of the thirteenth century, monarchs challenged these privileges. Philip the Fair of France and Edward I both financed wars by taxing clergy. Pope Boniface VII insisted that only the pope could tax clerics and ordered the clergy to disobey the royal orders. Edward threatened to declare resisting clergy outlaws, and Philip forbade the export of all metals, money, or jewels, forcing Boniface to back down and concede the right to tax in 1297.

2. The King’s New Tools: Propaganda and Public Opinion — When Philip the Fair arrested a bishop on a charge of treason in 1301, another confrontation with Boniface began, with Philip deriding and humiliating the pope and calling a French assembly, the Estates General, to support his policies. When the pope issued a defiant bull, the king accused him of various crimes and heresies.

3. Papal Defeat — Philip’s agents invaded the papal palace at Anagni and attempted to capture the pope, but local people resisted them. Boniface died shortly after, but the next popes pardoned Philip. The humiliation of the popes weakened the institution’s influence over monarchs and even its own churchmen, and the balance between church and state broke down.

4. The Avignon Papacy — In 1309, the pope fled civil disorder in Rome and settled in Avignon, where they remained until 1378. Many Europeans were concerned about the Avignon popes, many of whom were French, and saw the pope’s absence from Rome as a calamity. The Avignon organization was efficient, and regular revenues gave the papacy more influence over church appointments then they had before, even as they slowly abandoned the idea of leading all Christendom.

E. The Rise of the Signori

1. The Struggle for Power in the Italian Communes — During the thirteenth century, within the Italian communes non-noble groups called the popolo struggled to gain influence. The popolo, armed and militant, attempted to form alternate centers of power to the nobility, particularly seeking a role in determining tax policies. In some cities, nobles overcame and dissolved the popolo, while in others the popolo squeezed the nobles out of the government.

2. The Rise of the Regional Nobility in Italy — Regional nobles were able to take advantage of the unrest within communes to increase their own power and influence. They often established themselves as signori (lords) of the cities. Typically, signori kept the peace at the price of repression.

F. The Mongol Takeover

1. The Golden Horde in Russia — From the 1230s, the Mongols attacked Russia, Poland, and Hungary, where regional princes were weak. They also attacked Germany, and in 1250, conquered Iran and Iraq. Their sophisticated military tactics of multipronged invasion and mobility made them tough adversaries. They were most successful in Russia, capturing Kiev in 1240 and dominating Russia’s principalities for two centuries. Russian princes paid tribute to the Mongol khan, and the Russian church was tolerated.

2. The Opening of China to Europeans — The Mongol conquests opened China to Europeans for the first time, as missionaries, diplomats, and merchants traveled there over land or sea. Marco Polo (1254–1324), a merchant from Venice, was the most famous of these, but others went as well, perhaps even as entire communities. The pope sent the Franciscan missionary John of Monte Corvino as his envoy to China. In general, contact with the Mongols opened up new land routes to the east and helped bind together East and West.

G. The Great Famine

1. Hunger and Its Effects — The Great Famine (1315–1322) left many weak and sick and strengthened social divisions. Heavy rains and the death of farm animals drove up prices and spread suffering and death. Peasants and the poor were most at risk, while monasteries, lords, and the well-to-do peasants benefited from high prices. Rural and urban areas lost 5 to 10 percent of their population.

2. Reactions to the Famine — Charities offered relief and many prayed for deliverance, while monarchs tried to control prices and some peasants migrated in search of better land and weather. Towns became important, for they provided charitable relief.

3. Social Causes and Consequences of the Great Famine — Population growth contributed to the difficulty in producing enough food. By 1300, exponential population growth had entirely halted, but no technological advances aided agricultural productivity. Wars between rulers and the associated destruction of crops in the countryside pushed some localities over the edge. High taxes and grain requisitions also exacerbated the famine. In some places, peasants revolted and the limits of authority were made clear.